The Act is called the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023. It extends to the whole of India. However, except Chapters IX, XI and XII, its provisions do not automatically apply to (a) the State of Nagaland, and (b) the tribal areas — though the State Government may extend them by notification, with modifications. It comes into force on the date the Central Government appoints by notification.

Section 2 defines the working vocabulary of criminal procedure. The most exam-relevant definitions:

Besides the High Courts and courts under other laws, Section 6 says every State shall have these classes of criminal courts:

1. Courts of Session (highest trial court for serious offences);
2. Judicial Magistrates of the first class;
3. Judicial Magistrates of the second class;
4. Executive Magistrates (administrative/preventive functions).

Each State is a sessions division or has divisions; each division is a district (s.7). The State Government establishes a Court of Session for every division, and the High Court appoints the Sessions Judge and Additional Sessions Judges (s.8).

• Public Prosecutor (s.18): for every High Court the Central/State Government appoints a PP and Additional PPs; for districts, the State appoints PPs/Additional PPs. They conduct prosecution on behalf of the State.
• Assistant Public Prosecutors (s.19): the State appoints one or more APPs in every district to conduct prosecution of cases in Magistrate courts.
• Directorate of Prosecution (s.20): the State Government may establish a Directorate of Prosecution headed by a Director, with Deputy/Assistant Directors, to supervise and guide prosecution.

Chapter III fixes which court can pass what sentence (s.23):

• s.30: Police officers superior in rank to a station house officer may exercise the same powers throughout the local area.
• Aid to Magistrate (s.31–32): the public is bound to assist a Magistrate or police officer reasonably demanding aid in arresting/preventing escape, or in preventing breach of peace/injury to public property.
• When public must assist: a person is bound to assist when reasonably called upon to help take/prevent escape of someone the officer is authorised to arrest, or to prevent a breach of the peace.

A police officer may arrest without a Magistrate's order and without a warrant in cases listed in s.35(1), including a person who:

• commits a cognizable offence in the officer's presence;
• is reasonably suspected of a cognizable offence punishable up to 7 years — but only if the officer records reasons and is satisfied arrest is necessary (to prevent further offence, for proper investigation, to prevent tampering with evidence, to prevent inducement/threat to witnesses, or to ensure court attendance);
• is credibly informed to have committed a cognizable offence punishable with more than 7 years or death;
• is a proclaimed offender; is found with suspected stolen property; obstructs police / escapes custody; is a suspected armed-forces deserter; etc.

s.36 — Every officer making an arrest shall:

• bear an accurate, visible and clear identification of his name;
• prepare a memorandum of arrest attested by at least one witness (a family member of the arrested person or a respectable locality member) and countersigned by the arrested person;
• inform the arrested person of his right to have a relative/friend told of the arrest (unless a family member already attested the memo).

s.37 — Designated police officer & control room (new): the State must (a) set up a police control room in every district and at State level, and (b) designate an officer (not below Assistant Sub-Inspector) in every district and station to maintain and prominently display (including digitally) names/addresses of persons arrested and the offence charged.

• s.38: An arrested and interrogated person is entitled to meet an advocate of his choice during interrogation — though not throughout the interrogation.
• s.39: If a person who has committed/been accused of a non-cognizable offence in the officer's presence refuses to give his name and residence (or gives a false one), the officer may arrest him to ascertain identity. Once identity is known he must be released on bond/bail bond; if not ascertained within 24 hours, he is forwarded to the nearest Magistrate.

• s.40 — Private person: any private person may arrest someone who, in his presence, commits a non-bailable and cognizable offence, or any proclaimed offender, and must hand him to police without unnecessary delay, within six hours.
• s.41 — Magistrate: when an offence is committed in a Magistrate's presence within his local jurisdiction, he may himself arrest or order arrest, and commit the offender to custody.

• s.43 — Mode of arrest: the officer actually touches/confines the body unless there is submission to custody; reasonable force may be used; handcuffs may be used in specified situations as per the section.
• s.46: a person arrested shall not be subjected to more restraint than is necessary.
• s.49: search of an arrested person who cannot furnish bail; articles (other than necessary clothing) placed in safe custody with a receipt; a female can be searched only by a female, with decency.
• s.51 — Medical examination at police request where there are reasonable grounds it may furnish evidence; s.52 — examination of arrested person by a medical officer in rape/related cases; s.53 — examination of an arrested person by a medical officer to record injuries and approximate time.

• s.47: the arresting officer must forthwith communicate full particulars of the offence / grounds of arrest; and where the offence is bailable, inform the person he is entitled to bail and can arrange sureties.
• s.48: the officer must forthwith inform a nominated relative/friend (and the designated district officer) about the arrest and place of detention; tell the arrested person of this right on reaching the station; record who was informed; and the Magistrate must verify compliance.

s.58: No police officer shall detain an arrested person (without warrant) longer than reasonable, and in any case not more than 24 hours without a special order of a Magistrate under s.187 — excluding the journey time to the Magistrate's court.

Chapter VI provides the tools a court uses to compel a person to appear, in escalating order:

• s.94 — Summons to produce: a court/officer in charge may, by summons/written order, require production of a document, electronic communication (including device), or thing needed for an inquiry, trial, or investigation.
• Search warrants (s.96 onwards): a court may issue a search warrant where a summons to produce will not be obeyed, or the document/thing is unknown to be in any particular person's possession, or a general search is needed.
• s.103 — Search procedure: search of a closed place; occupant to allow ingress; presence of witnesses.
• s.105 — Recording of search & seizure: the search/seizure process, the list of seized things, and the witnesses' signatures must be recorded through audio-video electronic means (preferably mobile phone), and the recording forwarded without delay to the Magistrate.

Chapter VIII deals with assistance in investigation across countries (letters of request to/from foreign courts) and the procedure for attachment and forfeiture of property derived from crime, including proceeds of crime. It allows identification, attachment and confiscation of such property with the involvement of the court and central authority.

This is preventive jurisdiction — stopping crime before it happens by demanding a bond.

• s.125: a Sessions Court / first-class Magistrate convicting a person may order him to execute a bond for keeping the peace.
• s.126: security for keeping the peace in other cases (on information that a person is likely to breach the peace).
• Sections also cover security for good behaviour from suspected persons, habitual offenders, and those disseminating certain content.

• Unlawful assemblies: an Executive Magistrate or police officer may command an unlawful assembly to disperse, and use civil force / armed force if it does not.
• Urgent cases of nuisance or apprehended danger (s.163, the new "Section 144"): a District/Sub-divisional/Executive Magistrate may issue orders in urgent cases directing a person to abstain from a certain act to prevent obstruction, danger, riot or affray.
• Disputes as to immovable property (s.164–167): where a dispute likely to cause breach of peace concerns land/water, the Magistrate may attach the property and decide possession to prevent conflict.

• s.168: every police officer may interpose to prevent the commission of any cognizable offence.
• Arrest to prevent (s.170): police may arrest, without orders from a Magistrate, a person designing to commit a cognizable offence if it cannot otherwise be prevented.
• s.172: persons are bound to conform to the lawful directions of a police officer given to maintain order; the officer may detain/remove a person resisting, using minimum force.

The First Information Report provision (old s.154 CrPC) is now Section 173 BNSS, and it is substantially upgraded:

• Zero FIR (statutory): information of a cognizable offence may be given "irrespective of the area where the offence is committed" — i.e., any police station must register it, then transfer to the proper station.
• Electronic FIR: information may be given by electronic communication; it is taken on record on being signed within three days by the giver.
• Free copy (s.173(2)): a copy of the recorded information must be given forthwith, free of cost, to the informant/victim.
• Woman officer for specified sexual offences: information about specified BNS sexual offences must be recorded by a woman police officer; for a disabled victim, recorded at her residence/place of choice, videographed, with statement later recorded by a Magistrate.
• Preliminary enquiry (s.173(3)): for a cognizable offence punishable 3 years or more but less than 7 years, the SHO may, with prior permission of a DSP-rank officer, conduct a preliminary enquiry within 14 days to check for a prima facie case, or proceed straight to investigation.
• Remedy for refusal (s.173(4)): if the SHO refuses to register, the aggrieved person may approach the Superintendent of Police, and failing that, the Magistrate.

• s.174 — Non-cognizable cases: the SHO enters the substance in a book and refers the informant to the Magistrate; police shall not investigate a non-cognizable case without a Magistrate's order. A copy of the entry is given free to the informant.
• s.175 — Power to investigate cognizable cases: the SHO may investigate without a Magistrate's order. A Magistrate may order investigation under s.175(3) (the old s.156(3) power).
• s.176 — Procedure of investigation + forensic visit: for an offence punishable with 7 years or more, the SHO shall cause a forensic expert to visit the crime scene to collect forensic evidence and videograph the process on a mobile/electronic device.

• s.180 — Examination of witnesses by police: police may orally examine witnesses; statements may be recorded (including by audio-video electronic means); such statements are not signed.
• s.183 — Recording of confessions and statements by Magistrate: a Magistrate may record a confession/statement during investigation; confessions need a caution that the person is not bound to confess; a confession may be recorded by audio-video electronic means in the presence of the accused's advocate; no police officer with magisterial powers may record a confession.

This is the BNSS version of CrPC s.167 and contains a much-discussed change:

• If investigation cannot be completed in 24 hours, the accused is forwarded to the Magistrate, who may authorise detention.
• Police custody up to 15 days: the Magistrate may authorise custody for a term not exceeding 15 days in the whole, or in parts, at any time during the initial 40 or 60 days of the total 60/90-day period.
• Maximum total detention / default bail: the accused is released on bail on expiry of 90 days (offences punishable with death, life, or 10+ years) or 60 days (other offences), if he furnishes bail. This is "default" or "statutory" bail.
• No second-class Magistrate (unless specially empowered) may authorise police custody.

• s.190: on completing investigation with sufficient evidence, the SHO forwards the accused to a Magistrate empowered to take cognizance; if the offence is bailable and the accused can give security, the SHO takes security for appearance.
• s.193 — Report on completion (charge sheet): investigation shall be completed without unnecessary delay; for specified sexual offences against children it must be completed in two months. The report is forwarded (including by electronic communication) to the Magistrate. The IO must inform the informant/victim of the progress within 90 days, including electronically.
• Further investigation (s.193(9)): permitted even after the report; further investigation during trial needs the court's permission and must be completed within 90 days (extendable by the court).

• Search by police during investigation follows the recording rule in s.105 (audio-video recording, forwarded to the Magistrate).
• Seizure (s.106): police may seize suspected stolen property and must report the seizure to the Magistrate; property hard to transport may be given to a person on a bond.
• Case diary (s.192): the IO maintains a day-to-day record of the investigation; it can be used by the court to aid an inquiry/trial (not as substantive evidence by itself).

• s.197 — Ordinary place: every offence is ordinarily inquired into and tried by a court within whose local jurisdiction the offence was committed.
• Offence in several areas / continuing offence: may be tried by a court having jurisdiction over any of those areas.
• Electronic communication / acts in multiple places: where an act constituting an offence is done by letters or electronic communication, it may be inquired into/tried where the communication was sent or received.

Cognizance means a court taking judicial notice of an offence to start proceedings.

• s.210: a first-class Magistrate may take cognizance of an offence (a) on a complaint, (b) on a police report, or (c) on information from a person other than a police officer, or his own knowledge.
• Sanction: for certain offences (e.g., by public servants in discharge of duty, offences against the State), prior sanction of the appropriate Government is required before a court takes cognizance.
• Restrictions: some offences (e.g., relating to marriage, defamation) can be taken cognizance of only on a complaint by an aggrieved person.

• s.223 — Examination of complainant: a Magistrate taking cognizance on complaint shall examine the complainant and witnesses on oath. A new proviso requires giving the proposed accused an opportunity of being heard before cognizance in certain situations, and special care where the accused is a public servant.
• Issue of process (s.227): if there is sufficient ground to proceed, the Magistrate issues summons (summons-case) or warrant (warrant-case).
• Dismissal of complaint (s.226): if after examination there is no sufficient ground, the Magistrate dismisses the complaint and records reasons.
• s.230: in a case on a police report, the accused is to be supplied free of cost copies of the police report, FIR, statements, confessions and other documents — to be supplied within 14 days, including in electronic form.

A charge is the precise formal accusation that tells the accused exactly what he must defend.

• s.234: every charge shall state the offence with which the accused is charged; the specific name of the offence (or a definition if no specific name); the law and section; and shall be written in the language of the court.
• s.235: the charge shall contain particulars of time, place and person (and property/thing) so the accused has notice of the matter charged.

• Separate charges (general rule): for every distinct offence there shall be a separate charge, tried separately.
• Exceptions (joinder): three offences of the same kind within a year may be tried together; offences committed in one transaction may be charged and tried together; etc.
• Alteration of charge (s.239): the court may alter or add to a charge any time before judgment; the altered charge is read and explained to the accused, who may be allowed to recall witnesses.
• Effect of errors (s.246): an error/omission in the charge is not material unless it misled the accused and caused a failure of justice.

Conducted by a Public Prosecutor (s.248). The stages:

1. Opening the case by the prosecution.
2. Discharge (s.250): if no sufficient ground, the judge discharges the accused — this may be sought within a fixed period of supply of documents.
3. Framing of charge / plea: if there is ground to presume the accused committed the offence, the judge frames a charge; the accused may plead guilty.
4. Prosecution evidence → examination of the accused (s.351) → defence evidence.
5. Arguments → judgment of acquittal or conviction; if convicted, hearing on sentence.

• Warrant case (Ch XX): two routes — instituted on a police report or otherwise than on a police report (complaint). Involves framing of a formal charge.
• Summons case (Ch XXI): no formal charge; the substance of accusation is stated to the accused (s.274), who is asked if he pleads guilty. Simpler and quicker.
• Withdrawal/compounding: a complainant in a summons case may, with the court's permission, withdraw; certain offences are compoundable.

• s.283: a Chief Judicial Magistrate or first-class Magistrate shall try summarily specified petty offences — e.g., theft / receiving stolen property where the value does not exceed ₹20,000, certain BNS offences, criminal intimidation, etc.
• Summary procedure follows summons-case procedure with a brief record; the maximum sentence in a summary trial is generally 3 months.

Plea bargaining is a process where the accused and the prosecution/victim reach a mutually satisfactory disposition, usually in exchange for a lighter sentence, avoiding a full trial.

• Where it applies (s.289): available to an accused, except where the offence is punishable with death, life imprisonment, or imprisonment exceeding 7 years, offences affecting the socio-economic condition of the country, or offences against a woman or a child below 14 years.
• Application (s.290): the accused files an application for plea bargaining voluntarily; the court examines him in camera to ensure it is voluntary.
• Mutually satisfactory disposition (s.291–293): the court provides time for the accused, prosecutor and victim to work out a disposition, which may include compensation to the victim.
• Judgment (s.294): delivered in open court; final and no appeal lies (except SLP/writ) (s.295).
• The accused may get a reduced sentence — e.g., one-fourth of the punishment, or release on probation/admonition, where applicable.

• s.308: all evidence is taken in the presence of the accused (or his advocate where attendance is dispensed with). Evidence may be recorded by audio-video electronic means.
• Examination of the accused (s.351): the court may, and after prosecution evidence shall, question the accused on circumstances appearing against him — without oath, to enable him to explain.
• s.336: where a public servant / scientific expert who signed a report is transferred, retired or cannot be found, the successor official may be examined on the report — easing proof of expert reports.

• s.337 — Autrefois acquit/convict (double jeopardy): a person once tried and acquitted/convicted by a competent court shall not be tried again for the same offence (mirrors Article 20(2)).
• s.356 — Trial in absentia of a proclaimed offender (NEW): where a proclaimed offender has absconded to evade trial with no immediate prospect of arrest, the court may, after recording reasons, proceed with the trial and pronounce judgment in his absence. Safeguards: trial cannot commence until 90 days from framing the charge; two consecutive arrest warrants 30 days apart; newspaper publication; informing a relative; and affixing notice.

• s.392: judgment in original criminal trials shall be pronounced in open court, in the language of the court, and uploaded on the court portal within 7 days of pronouncement (electronic availability).
• Contents: the judgment states the offence, the section, and the punishment, with reasons; in convictions it specifies the sentence.
• Compensation to victims (s.396): the court may order the convict to pay compensation; States must prepare a victim compensation scheme.
• Acquittal/conviction: the judgment either acquits or convicts; in case of conviction the court hears the accused on sentence.

s.478: when a person not accused of a non-bailable offence is arrested and prepared to give bail, he shall be released on bail — bail in bailable offences is a matter of right. The officer/court may release on a bond without sureties if appropriate (e.g., indigent persons).

• s.480: a person accused of a non-bailable offence may be released on bail at the discretion of the court, but not if there appear reasonable grounds that he is guilty of an offence punishable with death or life imprisonment.
• Special concessions: a person under 16, a woman, or a sick/infirm person may be released on bail even in such cases at the court's discretion.
• s.481: before conclusion of trial/appeal, the court may, on reasonable grounds the accused is not guilty, release him pending further inquiry.

s.482: when a person has reason to believe he may be arrested on an accusation of a non-bailable offence, he may apply to the High Court or the Court of Session for a direction that, in the event of arrest, he be released on bail (anticipatory bail). The court considers the nature/gravity of the accusation, antecedents, and whether the application is to injure/humiliate.

• Default bail (s.187): if the charge sheet is not filed within 60 days (or 90 days for death/life/10+ year offences), the accused is entitled to be released on bail.
• Undertrial release (s.479) — NEW emphasis: an undertrial who has spent one-half of the maximum sentence in detention shall be released on bail; a first-time offender is released on bond after one-third of the maximum. No one shall be detained beyond the maximum punishment. The jail Superintendent must apply to the court for such release.
• Exception: s.479 relief does not apply where the offence is punishable with death/life, and is restricted where multiple cases are pending against the person.

• s.483: special powers of the High Court or Court of Session regarding bail (grant, impose conditions, etc.).
• s.484: the amount of the bond is fixed with due regard to the circumstances; it must not be excessive.
• s.485: a bond is executed before release; sureties may be required.
• Cancellation: a court that grants bail may cancel it and direct re-arrest if the accused misuses liberty (e.g., tampers with evidence, threatens witnesses).

• A Magistrate of the first class may order a person with sufficient means to pay a monthly allowance if that person neglects or refuses to maintain:
  • his wife (including a divorced wife who has not remarried) unable to maintain herself;
  • his legitimate or illegitimate minor child unable to maintain itself;
  • his legitimate or illegitimate adult child (not married daughter) who, by reason of any physical or mental abnormality or injury, is unable to maintain itself; and
  • his father or mother unable to maintain themselves.
• The allowance is payable from the date of the order or, if so directed, from the date of the application.
• Interim maintenance and expenses of the proceeding may be ordered, and are to be disposed of as far as possible within sixty days from service of notice.

• A wife is not entitled to maintenance if she is living in adultery, or refuses to live with her husband without sufficient reason, or they live separately by mutual consent.
• If the husband offers to maintain her on the condition of living with him, the Magistrate may consider any just ground she has for refusing.
• s.145 — procedure / evidence: evidence is taken in the presence of the person against whom maintenance is ordered (or his advocate); ex-parte orders are possible on proof of wilful avoidance of service.
• s.146 — alteration: the allowance may be altered on proof of a change in circumstances, or cancelled following relevant decisions of a competent civil court.
• s.147 — enforcement: arrears may be recovered as a fine; warrants may issue, and the defaulter may be sentenced to imprisonment for each month's non-payment.

• s.413 — no appeal as of course: there is no appeal from any judgment or order of a criminal court except as provided by the BNSS or any other law in force. Appeal is a creature of statute.
• s.415 — appeals from convictions: a person convicted by a High Court in its extraordinary original jurisdiction may appeal to the Supreme Court; convictions by a Sessions/Additional Sessions Judge are appealable to the High Court; certain convictions by Magistrates lie to the Court of Session.
• s.416 — no appeal in petty / plea cases: generally no appeal lies where the accused pleads guilty and is convicted on that plea (except as to the extent or legality of sentence), and in certain petty-sentence cases.
• s.418 — State / appeal against acquittal: the State (or in specified cases the complainant, with leave) may appeal against an order of acquittal.
• s.419 — appeal to Court of Session: how such appeals are heard.

• The appellate court may dismiss the appeal summarily, or after hearing may reverse, alter or confirm the finding and sentence, or order re-trial / take additional evidence.
• Pending appeal, the court may suspend the sentence and release the appellant on bail.
• An appellate court generally cannot enhance the sentence unless the appellant has had an opportunity to show cause and the enhancement is otherwise permissible.
• Appeals abate on the death of the accused (with a limited exception allowing a near relative to continue an appeal against conviction).

• Reference (s.436): where a court is satisfied that a case involves a question of validity of any Act/Ordinance/Regulation, it may state a case and refer it to the High Court for decision.
• Revision (s.438 onward): the High Court or Court of Session may call for the record of any proceeding of a subordinate court to satisfy itself as to the correctness, legality or propriety of any finding, sentence or order, and the regularity of proceedings.
• Revisional power is discretionary and supervisory; it is not a second appeal and is not ordinarily exercised to re-appreciate evidence.
• No revision lies at the instance of a party who could have appealed but did not.

• s.446 — Supreme Court: may transfer a case or appeal from one High Court to another, or from a court subordinate to one High Court to a court subordinate to another, when expedient for the ends of justice.
• The High Court may transfer cases between courts subordinate to it (e.g., for a fair trial, convenience of parties/witnesses, or to avoid bias).
• The Sessions Judge may transfer cases between Magistrates within the sessions division.
• An application for transfer is supported by affidavit; frivolous applications may attract compensation costs.

• s.453 — death sentence confirmation: a death sentence passed by a Sessions Court is executed only after confirmation by the High Court (read with Ch XXX, s.407–412).
• Warrant for execution: the court issues a warrant for execution of a death sentence / imprisonment to the appropriate authority (jail Superintendent).
• Suspension, remission & commutation: the appropriate Government may suspend or remit a sentence (with or without conditions) and may commute one form of punishment to a lighter one, subject to statutory conditions and, for certain offences, consultation/concurrence requirements.
• Where a conditional remission is breached, the person may be re-arrested to serve the unexpired portion.

• s.472 introduces a structured mercy-petition procedure for convicts under sentence of death.
• After the disposal of appeals/special leave, the jail authority informs the convict (and through them eligible persons) of the right to file a mercy petition.
• A mercy petition may be filed by the convict, or their legal heir or relative, to the Governor and/or the President within the prescribed time.
• The provision lays down timelines for filing and disposal, and bars any appeal to a court against the order on the mercy petition.

• s.497 — custody & disposal during inquiry/trial: the court may make orders for the proper custody of property produced before it, and for its disposal (e.g., if subject to speedy decay, it may be sold).
• On conclusion: the court orders disposal (destruction, confiscation, or delivery to the person entitled to possession) of property produced or in its custody.
• Provision is made for return of seized property and for sale of property whose owner is unknown or untraceable.
• Procedure for the photographing / video-graphing and timely release of seized property complements the new Ch VII search-and-seizure recording rules.

• Irregularities (Ch XXXVII): the Sanhita distinguishes irregularities that do not vitiate proceedings from those that do. Mere irregularity (e.g., a procedural lapse) does not set aside a finding unless it has occasioned a failure of justice.
• Limitation for cognizance (Ch XXXVIII, s.513–519): for less serious offences, courts cannot take cognizance after the limitation period — broadly 6 months (fine only), 1 year (imprisonment up to 1 year) and 3 years (imprisonment 1–3 years).
• The period of limitation is computed from the date of the offence (or knowledge of it); delay may be condoned in the interest of justice on explanation.

• s.530 — trial & proceedings in electronic mode 🆕: all trials, inquiries and proceedings — including issue/service of summons and warrants, examination of complainant and witnesses, recording of evidence, and appeals — may be held in electronic mode.
• Power to make rules / functions of officers, forms, and savings provisions are dealt with in this chapter.
• s.531 — repeal & savings: the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 is repealed; pending appeals, applications, trials and investigations continue under the old Code as if it had not been repealed (transitional saving).

• Information about a cognizable offence may be given electronically; such information is taken on record on being signed within three days by the informant.
• Zero FIR is now statutory — an FIR can be registered irrespective of the area where the offence is committed, and later transferred to the police station having jurisdiction.
• The informant is entitled to a free copy of the FIR forthwith.

• s.105: the conduct of a search and the preparation of the seizure list must be recorded through audio-video electronic means (preferably a mobile phone), and the recording is forwarded to the District Magistrate / Sub-Divisional Magistrate / Judicial Magistrate.
• s.176(3): for offences punishable with seven years or more, a forensic expert must visit the crime scene to collect forensic evidence, and the process is videographed.
• These provisions aim to improve the evidentiary integrity of searches, seizures and crime-scene investigation.

• s.180: a witness's statement to the police may be recorded by audio-video electronic means.
• s.183: a confession or statement before a Magistrate may be recorded by audio-video electronic means, with the statutory caution and voluntariness safeguards, in the presence of the advocate of the accused.
• s.308 (Ch XXV): evidence may be taken in the presence of the accused, and where the personal attendance is dispensed with, in the presence of his advocate — including through electronic means.
• s.336 🆕: a successor official / expert may depose on a report when the original signatory has retired, died, or is otherwise unavailable.

• s.63: summons may be served in electronic form (e.g., to the email/portal of the person), with the encrypted/authenticated copy treated as duly served.
• s.530: all trials, inquiries and proceedings — issue/service of summons and warrants, examination of complainant and witnesses, recording of evidence, and appeals — may be conducted in electronic mode.
• s.392: judgments are pronounced in open court and, as a transparency measure, uploaded on the court portal (within the prescribed period, generally seven days).
• Digitisation of records, e-service, and video-conferencing are thus woven through the entire procedural lifecycle.